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A World of Lamas

    Date:06-02-2009   Source:tibet328.cn

After the "cultural revolution" came to an end in 1976, we drove along the Qinghai-Tibet Road all the way to Lhasa. When the magnificent Potala Palace, Drepung Monastery, Sera Monastery, Norbu Lingka and Jokhang Monastery came into view, we felt much relieved. But there was a sharp contrast between those palaces and monasteries, and the shabby residences along the way, as well as in Lhasa. When I stepped into those resplendent halls and saw pagodas made of pure gold, I could not help thinking that all the wealth of Tibet was probably stored there.

The reason Lhasa became known as a sacred city was that it was home to so many monasteries and so many monks. Besides, it was where the Dalai Lama, supposedly a reincarnation of the Goddess of Mercy (Avalokitesvara), resided. Guanyin was supposed to  oversee the present and future of mankind. In l95l, when Lhasa was liberated peacefully, there were about 20,000 monks in the three major monasteries of Gandan. Sera and Drepung. and the four great ling (palaces) of Gundeling, Dangyailing, Cemoinling and Cejoiling. So there were more monks than lay people in Lhasa at that time. The monasteries, just like the aristocratic clans, also owned manorial estates and serfs. In fact, the total amount of farmland they owned was larger than that owned by the nobles, accounting for 37% of Tibet's arable land. The Drepung Monastery alone, which was the largest, had more than l 0,000 monks, l85 manorial estates, 20,000 serfs, 300 pastures and l6,000 herdsmen. It had subsidiary monasteries scattered all over Tibet. Apart from the annual revenue from its manoria1 estates, it also earned money by engaging in trade and commerce, and money lending. Therefore, a monastery was equal to a semi-autonomous or virtually autonomous organization as far as its social status was concerned. It was essentially an economic conglomerate.

Monks of the three major monasteries and belonging to a1l the various sects of Tibetan Buddhism played an important role not only in religious activities but also in political affairs. At times, their political role could be decisive. The Gelug Sect, headed by the Dalai Lama, was the dominant sect in Tibetan Buddhism.

People have different opinions on Tibetan Buddhism. Some are fascinated by it, while others take a completely negative attitude. There are also people whose minds are divided. But most peop1e find it mysterious, which arouses their curiosity. Compared with Buddhism in other parts of the world, Tibetan Buddhism is indeed unique in various ways: its system of reincarnation of Living Buddhas, the practice of the unfathomable Esoteric Buddhism, its process of becoming Buddha Guardians, its rituals, its knowledge which covers a1most everything under the sun, and the form of examination and debate.... The senior monks, for instance, are in fact learned people. They have attained a degree of profound learning after years of hard study and debating. The debates over scriptures are particularly interesting. One monk fires a question and another will answer it or challenge the questioner with another question. With each question or each answer, a clap of the hands is made by the speaker to emphasize his point. The rhythm of such debates is rapid, and the atmosphere tense. If a monk falters in answering or what he says does not hold water, he is lost.

The "iron pole monks" (locally known as "Tshogchen Shango") in Tibetan monasteries was quite a sight. Such monks were usually very tall and robust, and wore voluminous robes. They deliberately wore a stern expression, particularly in public, as though they were acting. The name iron pole monk itself indicates that they were posted to maintain order. During the annual Monlam Prayer Festival, which lasts for 21 days in the first month of the Tibetan calendar, the "mayor" of Lhasa would surrender his power to the Iron pole monks of the Drepung Monastery to maintain order. They were supposed to be in charge of not only human beings but also deities. Wielding poles or whips, they stalked the streets and yelled at the top of their lungs. It was recorded that a Russian was whipped by them in l90l and a Frenchman hit by their poles in l924 in the streets of Lhasa.

In the old days, the monasteries kept teams of "Martial Monks". It was estimated that there were about 2,000 such monks in the three major monasteries. Their main task was not learning but practice of martial arts. They functioned as manual laborers in monasteries and had to attend to all the hard and dirty work. Since they did not study the Buddhist scriptures, they would, of course, have no hope of becoming Living Buddhas. So their ambition was to become Buddha Guardians. I know a man with the title of Buddha Guardian, who lives in the Sangphu Monastery on the southern bank of the Lhasa River. He used to be a monk in the Drepung Monastery. He was given the title because once he had shown signs of being possessed by a spirit. I heard that a Martial Monk was given the title because he had kept murmuring about becoming a Buddha Guardian, and he once made a terrible face and jumped into the Lhasa River when it was in full spate.

The ordinary people were terrified of the Martia1 Monks. As long as they protected the interests of their monasteries, they seemed to be allowed to do anything. They kept watch on the outside world as if there was imminent danger. They even dared to confront the Gaxag government or its army, and clashes happened from time to time. Because of the existence of these monks, monasteries in Lhasa seemed to give people the impression that all monks were militant and aggressive. There were two famous examples in modern history. On both occasions, monks of the Drepung and Sera monasteries, respectively, fought against troops of the Gaxag government. So, in a way, monasteries were also organizations of a military nature.

In the 1920s, monks of the Drepung Monastery launched a demonstration against the Divine King (a title of the Dalai Lama). They got the upper hand at first. Several thousand monks rushed down the mountain where the Drepung Monastery stood, and marched and then charged into the Norbu Lingka. The 13th Dalai Lama immediately ordered his Commander-in-Chief Charong to drive them back to their monastery, which he did, without casualties. But an armed clash between monks of the Sera Monastery and the Government army in the 1940s led to volleys of rifle and cannon shots, resulting in a great loss of life.

In 1947, when the patriotic Living Buddha Reting was arrested by the pro-British government, accused of being "pro-Han," the monks of the Sera monastery, his power base, threatened to attack the prison and rescue Reting. At the urging of Hugh Richardson, Britain's commercial representative in Gyangze, the Gaxag government, headed by Living Buddha Taktra, mobilized armed force to capture the monastery and put it under lock and key.

The religious groups represented by the three major monasteries were the direct beneficiaries of the theocratic socio-political structure, but sharp contradictions with such a society were inevitable. They constantly opposed the reforms attempted by the l3tti Dalai Lama, Regent Reting and the Gaxag government. They were highly vigilant, and ready at any time to resist any moves which they thought might harm their interests. When it came to armed conflict, the monks were defeated every time, but they nevertheless managed to halt all attempts to alter the status quo.

In old Tibet, it was the dream of every child in the poverty-stricken villages to enter a monastery. That way, they would acquire learning, their social status would be enhanced, and they would say farewell to manual labor for good. The unique political system in Tibet made the monasteries the guardians of the social order, and the monks as a group had tremendous political power. A good example of their power was the abolition of an English school in Lhasa as a result of the opposition of the three major monasteries. In l943, the Gaxag government set up an English school in Lhasa at the request of Richardson, and entrusted the Briton to employ two English teachers. This was supported by the nobles (most of the school's 43 students were from aristocratic families), but it made the monks uneasy, as they believed that English language teaching was a threat to the existing social order. As a result of the monks' threats, the school was eventually closed after it had been in operation only five months. There are conflicting views on this incident: Some people point to it as an example of the reactionary conservatism of the monks, while others are mindful of the role played by the monasteries in battling against the British invaders early in the 20th century, and c1aim that the monks were more aware of the danger of British imperialism than the nobles of Tibet at that time.

After Lungshar, a lay head of the Gaxag government, fell in l934, both regents from then to l95l were Living Buddhas. In a society where law is inadequate, power without supervision inevitably leads to corruption. This is also true of senior clergymen of any faith. The corruption of the last regent Taktra Rimpoche is a typical example of this.

When Taktra became regent he was almost 70. Before that, he had been little known in political circles. He had been noted for his indifference to fame and gain, and his administrative office was probably the poorest among such organizations in Lhasa. It was pure coincidence that he took on a political role. What happened was that the pro-British faction in the government ousted Living Buddha Reting, who was thought to be too loyal to China's Central Government, as regent, and the neutral and respected Taktra took his place, supposedly on a temporary basis. During the initial period of his term of office, Taktra seemed to be honest in handling administrative affairs. But before long, power began to corrupt him. He and his cronies accepted bribes, sold official titles and amassed wealth in all sorts of other crooked ways. His degradation reached such a point that he imprisoned and poisoned Reting, and spearheaded the forces working for independence for Tibet in the late l940s. However, his schemes went awry, and he died in disgrace.